logos

λόγος

Pronunciation

LOH-goss (ˈloʊɡɒs)

Definition

logos (λόγος): This is the central concept, encompassing the rational (logikos), the principles of reason, explanation, word, and argument, and the ordering principle in the cosmos. It includes the logos spermatikos (λόγος σπερματικός), the seminal reason through which the universe develops and renews itself, and the orthos logos (ὀρθὸς λόγος), right reason, the standard by which the sage judges all things.

Deep Dive

Logos is the central concept of Stoicism. It is the rational order of the cosmos and is integral to the rational faculty within each human being. The Stoics took the idea from Heraclitus, who suggested that the logos was the law that governs all things (Diels–Kranz, DK 22B1). The Stoics then gave it systematic form. For them the universe is permeated by logos, which is at once material, rational, and divine (Diogenes Laertius, DL 7.134). Logos is god, nature, and fate (Chrysippus in Cicero, De Natura Deorum 2.22). It is the fiery breath (pneuma) that holds the world together. It is what shapes matter and directs all events. The cosmos is itself a living being, ordered by the providential logos (Marcus Aurelius, Meditations 4.40).

Logos also operates as logoi spermatikoi (“seminal reasons”). These are formative principles implanted in matter, which cause each thing to grow and develop according to its kind. An acorn becomes an oak, not an olive. This is because the seminal reason within it directs its form and growth. The universal logos structures not only the cosmos as a whole but also the nature of each thing. (Sources: DL 7.136; Cicero, De Natura Deorum 2.22)

For us humans, our share in the logos is expressed in the rational part of the soul, the hegemonikon, which enables thought, assent, and action (Epictetus, Discourses 1.1.7). To live well is to live in agreement with logos, both as reason within and as the order of the whole.

The practical importance of logos is as a measure of truth and conduct. It is the logos that governs assent to impressions. In turn this allows judgements to remain in line with reality (Sextus Empiricus, Against the Mathematicians 7.151). It directs impulses into appropriate actions (kathēkonta), joining individual life to universal reason (DL 7.87). Virtue is nothing other than right reason in agreement with nature (orthos logos homou tē phusei) (DL 7.89).

Logos joins forcibly with freedom. All events follow from the causal chain of the logos. But rational beings can assent or withhold assent in light of reason (Epictetus, Discourses 1.17.6). The sage achieves freedom not by escaping fate but by choosing in agreement with the logos that orders all things (Marcus Aurelius, Meditations 7.55).

Fate is the causal structure of the universe itself. It is the sequence of causes and effects arising necessarily from the nature of things. There is no external decree and no arbitrary script. Fate is identical with logos (rational order), nature, and providence (DL 7.149). Fate for the Stoics was not defined in a modern sense by gods or by destiny. It is not external and arbitrary. As the cosmos is governed by logos, it is also providential. Everything happens from a cause/reason and everything contributes to the order and good of the whole. What seems evil in isolation finds its place within the larger harmony. Cleanthes expressed this in his Hymn to Zeus, where he praised the divine logos that “guides all things for the common good.”

Life according to logos is marked by consistency. When assents, impulses, and actions align with the logos the mind flows smoothly and without conflict. Passions arise from false judgements that set us against the rational order. Freedom from passions allows the emergence of rational good emotions (eupatheiai) such as joy, wish, and caution (DL 7.116). Logos therefore brings unity within the self and harmony with the cosmos.

Logos also unites the three parts of Stoic philosophy. In physics, it is the rational principle that orders nature. In logic, it appears as the structure of language and thought. In ethics, it is the rule of life, since to live well is to live according to logos. Thus logos provides the common foundation of Stoic doctrine. First, it is the criterion of knowledge, since truth is agreement of thought with the rational order of reality. Second, it is the guide of ethics, since virtue is reason applied to action. Third, it is the bond of community, since all rational beings share in the same logos.

Another meaning of logos is that of both reason and speech. We as rational beings share in the cosmic logos, not only by thinking but also by communicating. Language expresses the structure of thought. Thought in turn reflects the structure of reality. This relationship between reason, speech, and nature brings together universal fellowship. Logos is at once the law of the cosmos and the reason of the soul. To live according to it is to live with virtue, knowledge, and fellowship, in concord with oneself and in harmony with the world.

Related Quotations

“The cosmos is a living being, endowed with soul and reason.” – Marcus Aurelius, Meditations 4.40 (Haines, Loeb)

“Virtue is nothing other than right reason in agreement with nature.” – Diogenes Laertius 7.89 (Hicks, Loeb)

“Constantly think of the universe as one living being… in agreement with its own nature.” - Marcus Aurelius 7.55 (Haines, Loeb)

“All events are interwoven with one another, and the web is holy; none of its parts are unconnected. They are composed harmoniously, and together they compose the world.” – Marcus Aurelius, Meditations 7.9 (Haines, Loeb)

“The rational nature is related to the whole, and what is right for it is also right for the whole.” – Epictetus, Discourses 1.17.6 (Oldfather, Loeb)

“Zeus, leader of nature, governing all things with law… you direct all things in accord with logos.” – Cleanthes, Hymn to Zeus (quoted in Stobaeus, Anthology 1.1.12; translation after Long & Sedley)

“We are born for cooperation, like feet, like hands, like eyelids.” - Marcus Aurelius 4.4 (Haines, Loeb)

“Man is by nature a social being; it is not for himself alone that he is born, but for the world.” - Epictetus, Discourses 1.23.1–4 (Oldfather, Loeb)